Does EI involve Specific Competencies?
Yes!
It has been shown that EI does definitely involve specific competencies.
To provide a practical explanation of the specific competencies that EI involves, I will refer to the competencies measured by the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), and provide examples of what each competency really means (Meshkat & Nejati, 2017).
The EQ-I is a comprehensive self-report measure of EI. The competencies in EI, as measured by the EQ-I, are, as described by Meshkat and Nejati (2017):
- Emotional self-awareness (e.g. “it is hard for me to understand the way I feel”).
- Assertiveness (e.g. “it is difficult for me to stand up for my right”)
- Self-regard (e.g. “I don’t feel good about myself”)
- Independence (e.g. “I prefer others to make decisions for me”)
- Empathy (e.g. “I’m sensitive to the feelings of others”)
- Interpersonal relationships (e.g. “people think that I’m sociable”)
- Social responsibility (e.g. “I like helping people”)
- Problem-solving (e.g. “my approach to overcoming difficulties is to move step by step)
- Reality testing (e.g. “it’s hard for me to adjust to new conditions”)
- Flexibility (e.g. “it’s easy for me to adjust to new conditions”)
- Stress tolerance (e.g. “I know how to deal with upsetting problems”), and
- Impulse control (e.g. “it’s a problem controlling my anger).
As well as these specific competencies, happiness, optimism and self-actualization act to ‘facilitate’ EI (Meshkat & Nejati, 2017).
Is EI linked to Personality Traits?
From a large study of 1584 individuals, Mayer and colleagues (2004) concluded that people who are rated as higher in EI tend to be more agreeable, open and conscientious.
Furthermore, findings from neuroscience have shown that EI also involves the same brain regions that are implicated in conscientiousness (Barbey, Colom, & Grafman, 2014).
The neural findings support the fact that a central feature of EI is conscientiousness, which is characterized by the degree of organization, persistence, control, and motivation in goal-directed behavior (Barbey et al., 2014).
Let’s examine this in some detail.
A Closer Look at EI and Personality
According to their seminal paper on EI in 1990, Salovey and Mayer describe EI as the subset of social intelligence. Researchers Cantor and Kihlstrom have argued that social intelligence is a central construct for understanding personality (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Behavior has been described as the observable expression of someone’s personality in a certain social condition (Mayer et al., 2016). Personality includes motives, emotions, social styles, self-awareness and self-control (Mayer et al., 2016).
These components contribute to consistent patterns of behavior, quite distinct from intelligence.
Whilst earlier research mentioned previously has found an association between conscientiousness and EI, in actual fact, more recent findings show that the actual correlation between EI and the ‘Big 5’ personality traits is close to zero!
Research by Mayer and colleagues (2016) found the following correlations between EI and the Big 5:
- Neuroticism – r = -.17
- Openness – r = .18
- Conscientiousness – r = .15
- Extraversion – r = .12
- Agreeableness – r = .25
Thus, whereas previous studies have shown that EI was most closely related to the facet of conscientiousness, more recently the most closely related personality factor to EI was found to be agreeableness.
However, the very low levels of correlation have led researchers to conclude that intelligence and socio-emotional styles are relatively distinct and independent (Mayer et al., 2016).
Nevertheless, personality does seem to relate in some ways to EI.
For example, people who score higher in EI tend to be more likely to prefer social occupations than enterprising occupations, as indicated by the Holland Self-Directed Search (Mayer et al., 2004). In addition, individuals who score more highly on EI also tend to display more adaptive defense mechanisms than less adaptive ones, such as denial (Mayer et al., 2004).
Further research is certainly warranted.
Different Types of Emotional Intelligence
To examine so-called ‘types’ of EI, we can examine what people with high EI have the capacity to do.
For starters, they are able to quickly and accurately solve a range of emotion-related problems (Mayer, 2009). A type of EI is being able to solve emotion-based problems. Those who are high in EI can also perceive emotions in other people’s faces accurately (Mayer, 2009). Therefore, a type of EI is facial perception.
People with high EI have an awareness of how certain emotional states are associated with specific ways of thinking (Mayer, 2009). For example, people high in EI may realize that sadness actually facilitates analytic thinking, so they may, therefore, choose (if possible) to analyze things when they are in a sad mood (Mayer, 2009). Thus a ‘type’ of EI is understanding emotions and how they can drive thinking.
People high in EI have an appreciation of the determinants of an emotion and the associated meaning of the emotion – for example, they may recognize that people who are angry are potentially dangerous, that happiness means people are more likely to want to socialize compared to sad people who are preferring to be alone (Mayer, 2009). Thus, a ‘type’ of EI is being able to ‘read’ emotion.
Highly EI individuals are able to manage the emotions of themselves and others (Mayer, 2009). A ‘type’ of EI is effective emotion management. These individuals also understand that people who are happy are more likely to be willing to attend a social event compared to people who are sad, or afraid – therefore, a type of EI is socio-emotional awareness.
Finally, those high in EI have an appreciation of how emotional reactions unfold, which demonstrates another ‘type’ of EI.
Dimensions of the Concept
When examining the dimensions of EI, it is necessary to differentiate between emotions and EI. Emotions are developed in our environment, resulting from circumstances and knowledge (Faltas, 2017).
Emotion may be described as “a natural instinctive state of mind that derives from our current and past experiences and situations” (Faltas, 2017). Our feelings and things that we experience affect our emotions.
On the other hand, EI is an ability (Faltas, 2017). It is having the awareness, and skill, in order to know, recognize, and understand feelings, moods, and emotions and use them in an adaptive way (Faltas, 2017).
EI involves learning how to manage feelings and emotions and to use this information to guide our behavior (Faltas, 2017). EI drives how we act – including decision-making, problem-solving, self-management and demonstrating leadership (Faltas, 2017).
EI has been shown to be a relatively stable aptitude, as opposed to emotional ‘knowledge’ – which is the sort of information that EI actually uses. EI, in comparison to emotional knowledge, is acquired more readily and can be taught.
In that key paper from 1990, Salovey and Mayer stated that the mental processes related to EI are “appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others, regulating emotion in the self and others, and utilization of emotions in adaptive ways” (p. 190).
EI touches and influences every aspect of our lives (Faltas, 2017). Dimensions of EI, therefore, include driving behavior and affecting decision-making.
Other dimensions of the concept include solving conflicts, and affecting both how we feel about ourselves and also how we communicate with others (Faltas, 2017).
EI affects how we manage the stress that occurs in day-to-day life, as well as how we perform in the workplace and manage and lead teams (Faltas, 2017).
EI has an effect on all areas of our personal and professional development (Faltas, 2017). It helps us to advance, to mature, and to attain our goals (Faltas, 2017).
12 Recommended Research Articles and Papers on EI
- Barchard, K. A. (2003). Does emotional intelligence assist in the prediction of academic success? Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63(5), 840-858.
- Brackett, M., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (2004). Emotional intelligence and the prediction of behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1387-1402.
- Davies, M., Stankov, L., & Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: In search of an elusive construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 989-1015.
- Izard, C. E. (2001). Emotional intelligence or adaptive emotions? Emotion, 1(3), 249-257.
- Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., & Straus, R. (2003). Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships. Personality and individual Differences, 35(3), 641-658.
- Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27(4), 267-298.
- Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsades, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 507-536.
- Nathanson, L., Rivers, S. E., Flynn, L. M., & Brackett, M. A. (2016). Creating emotionally intelligent schools with RULER. Emotion Review, 8(4), 305-310.
- Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29(2), 313-320.
- Petrides, K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki, F. (2007). The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space. British Journal of Psychology, 98(2), 273-289.
- Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 425-448.
- Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The science of emotional intelligence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(6), 281-285.
Key Topics in Emotional Intelligence Research
What about the future for EI?
As identified earlier in the article, one area of future research into EI is to clarify the relationship (if any!) between EI and personality traits. You will soon read some research from neuroscience, and this is most certainly another area of EI research that will continue to grow.
The key researchers in EI – Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey – have also put forward two suggestions for further research.
The first is in regards to the so-called ability measures of EI… the factor structure is yet to be clarified (Mayer et al., 2016).
The second area is that, if EI is, in fact, a discrete intelligence, there would need to be a separate reasoning capacity to understand emotions…there is some evidence on this so far: Heberlein and colleagues demonstrated that the areas of the brain that serve to perceive emotional expressions (such as happiness) can be differentiated from the brain areas that are responsible for perceiving expressions of personality (such as shyness) (Mayer et al., 2016).
Are There Gender Differences in Emotional Intelligence?
There has been a wealth of interesting research into whether gender is related to EI.
The following discussion is based on a comprehensive research paper published by Meshkat and Nejati in 2017. Although findings have varied, it appears that there are gender differences in EI. These differences may be attributable to both social and biological factors.
Gender has been described as an inherently social process, and that certain traits are seen as desirable for one gender but not another – for example, assertiveness is a ‘typical’ male characteristic, whilst empathy is seen as a desirable female characteristic.
According to Meshkat and Nejati (2017) males and females are socialized differently – females are encouraged to be cooperative, expressive and tuned in to their interpersonal world, whereas males are encouraged to be competitive, independent and instrumental.
Biologically, females are ‘biochemically adapted’ to focus on the emotions of the self and other as necessary to promote survival. Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, the areas of the brain that are necessary for emotional processing are larger in females than these areas are in males.
The cerebral processing of emotions has also been shown to differ between males and females.
Findings of research from around the world into gender differences in EI have been inconsistent.
In the study by Meshkat and Nejati (2017), the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory was administered to 455 undergraduate university students. Results showed no significant difference between males and females on the total score measuring EI.
However, female students scored higher than males on self-awareness, interpersonal relationship, self-regard, and empathy. Although, given previous research, Meshkat and Nejati (2017) expected males to score higher than females on self-regard, in actual fact the findings of this study did not support this hypothesis.
What about other research?
In a US study, females scored higher on EI than males on EI and had higher emotional and interpersonal skills, whereas, in India, a study of medical graduates found the females to be higher in EI.
A study of Sri Lankan undergraduate medical students also found females to have a higher average level of EI. In younger students, a study in Delhi found that female 10th graders demonstrated higher EI than their male counterparts, however in a study that took place in Iran, 17-year-old female students had a lower EI.
Overall, it has been suggested that females tend to score higher EI than males. However, even this finding is inconsistent!
In some cases, there are no clear differences – for example, a study in the UK failed to find any relationship between gender and overall EI in a sample of employees. Similarly, in a study based in Myanmar, no difference in EI was found between male and female teachers.
Perhaps, then, we should examine the components of EI. Indeed, females ranked more highly than males in terms of the interpersonal facet of EI, as well as in empathy, emotional skills, and emotional-related perceptions (such as decoding facial expressions).
There are also gender differences in the expression of emotions – females tend to be better at expressing emotions.
It has been found that mothers use more emotion words when telling stories to their daughters, and also display more emotion when interacting with females. It has also been claimed that males actually fear emotions and struggle to name the emotions experienced by themselves or others.
Research has shown that males are more likely to express high-intensity positive emotions, such as excitement, whilst females tend to express low/moderately intense positive emotions (such as happiness) and sadness.
Further, research suggests that females pay more attention to emotions, are more emotional and tend to be better at handling emotions and understanding them. On the other hand, males have been shown to be more skillful at regulating impulses and coping with pressure.
Females tend to be more able to guide and manage the emotions of themselves and others, and they also tend to be better at emotional attention and empathy than males, who show superiority in emotion regulation.
In the workplace, more specifically in the area of leadership, males tend to be more assertive, whilst females demonstrate higher levels of integrity than their male leader counterparts.
One consistent finding into gender difference in EI was that in nearly all countries, males were found to overestimate their EI whilst females tend to underestimate their EI.
As you can see, the question of whether there are gender differences in emotional intelligence is not easily answered. Overall, however, there does seem to be an association between gender and EI.
Role of EQ in Self-awareness
Self-awareness can be defined as the ‘conscious knowledge of one’s own character and feelings’. In his best-selling book “Emotional Intelligence” published in 1995, Daniel Goleman defines self-awareness as ‘knowing one’s internal states, preference, resources, and intuitions’.
What, then, is the role of EQ in self-awareness?
Well, considering that the first step in awareness is ‘knowing’, EQ enables an individual to notice different emotional reactions – therefore giving them the knowledge of what is being experienced themselves or by another person.
The next step is another component of EQ: being able to identify the emotions correctly (Cherry, 2018). Another feature of being self-aware is the capacity to realize how our actions, moods, and emotions affect others – which is also a component of EQ (Cherry, 2018).
Monitoring one’s emotional experience is another skill of EQ related to self-awareness.
Another factor in being self-aware is being able to notice the relationship between our feelings and our behavior, as well as being able to recognize our own strengths and limitations (Cherry, 2018).
While self-awareness necessarily affects the individual, according to Goleman, the self-awareness component of EQ also includes having an open mind when it comes to unfamiliar experiences and new ideas, and also to take lessons from day-to-day interactions with others.
As you can see, self-awareness is a key component of EQ, and the two are interdependent.
The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence
The following section of the article is based on the information freely available at www.ei.yale.edu.
The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence was founded by Peter Salovey, and is currently being directed by Marc Brackett. The Center “uses the power of emotions to create a more effective and compassionate society”.
A key aspect of the center is the application of scientific research to develop effective approaches for teaching EI. It also seeks to provide education on how to develop EI across the lifespan.
In a range of schools, the Yale Center uses a research-based, field-tested approach called RULER.
RULER was inspired by Marvin Maurer, a teacher who, in the early 1970s began using an emotional literacy program. RULER has been associated with improvements in students’ academic performance and social skills.
It has also been shown to help develop classrooms that are more supportive and student-centered. It includes tools, such as the ‘mood meter’: a RULER tool that helps students recognize and communicate their feelings.
Classrooms using RULER report less aggression among students than those classrooms not using RULER.
To learn more about RULER, a research article has been listed as one of the recommended papers in the earlier section of this article.
The Yale Center for EI’s mission is to utilize research to enhance real-world practice. The success of RULER has led Yale to produce similar programs to be delivered in ‘communities’ such as businesses, governments, and families.
The overarching aim is to harness the power of EI to help individuals achieve happier, healthier, and more productive lives.
Partners of the Center include the Born This Way Foundation, the Brewster Academy, and CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning). The Yale Center is currently being supported by Facebook in researching the nature and consequences of online bullying among adolescent Facebook users.
The Center aims to study new ways to teach EI.
Researchers have published over 400 scholarly articles, a number of curricula for teaching EI and several books on the topic of EI. It looks into how EI skills are taught and assessed in people of all ages. Further, it has investigated how best to assess EI in a variety of contexts and the development of EI skills throughout life.
Researchers at the Yale Center for EI are also looking into the roles emotions play in everyday contexts, including work and school. One example is the ‘Creativity, Emotions and The Arts’ project.
The Center is also researching bullying, with the aim of creating positive, safe emotional environments where bullying behaviors do not flourish.
Emotional Intelligence, or, what is commonly referred to as EQ has been claimed to be the key to success in life!
What our readers think
Hello,
Really the article was so educative. Reading it added many things to my knowledge.
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Hi Nicole, I found the article extremely useful as a professional in the finance industry, especially, the potential gender differences in EI. From observations of my peers and comments from others, empathy in my profession is very important to relating to clients and therefore providing appropriate advice. I am utilising the knowledge gained in EI to improving outcomes for my clients.